Among the options given, the correct answer is e) chemiosmosis.
Explanation: Chemiosmosis is a process that occurs in both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration. In photosynthesis, it takes place across the thylakoid membrane, where the energy from sunlight is used to pump protons into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient. This gradient is then utilized to produce ATP as protons flow back across the membrane into the stroma through ATP synthase.
In aerobic respiration, particularly in the mitochondrial inner membrane, chemiosmosis also occurs. Here, the electrons from the electron transport chain help to pump protons into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP production when the protons re-enter the mitochondrial matrix through ATP synthase.
The other options do not apply to both processes: the Calvin cycle is only in photosynthesis, glycolysis occurs in both but is not a shared characteristic of the two processes, carbon dioxide and oxygen are not shared end products, and thylakoids are specific to photosynthesis.