The Thirty Years’ War, which lasted from 1618 to 1648, was a complex conflict involving many European powers. The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia, a series of treaties signed in 1648. The primary victors of the war were the Protestant states and their allies, who secured religious and political freedoms. The Catholic Habsburgs, particularly the Spanish and Austrian branches, were significantly weakened.
The Peace of Westphalia established the principle of state sovereignty and marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire’s dominance in European politics. It also recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and the Swiss Confederation. The war’s outcome reshaped the political landscape of Europe, leading to a more decentralized and fragmented system of states.